INTRODUCTORY NOTE: An outstanding feature and capability of the World Wide Web is that it allows for continuing and rapid revision, expansion and correction. A site such as A Journalist's Online Glossary of Religion (JOGR), therefore, is never complete and must constantly undergo revision, expansion and correction. Suggestions for such updates should be addressed to the compiler at arandrews@toadmail.com

I appreciate the several writers who have sent me corrections and suggestions for improving this glossary.  Their efforts work toward keeping me from embarrassment at  my ignorance.   Saving journalists from embarrassment in matters of religion, of course, is the primary goal of this glossary.   The responsibility for any errors or misconceptions lies with the compiler alone.

Particular thanks for his keen spotting of problems go to J. Michael Parker, religion writer for the San Antonio Express-News.

Furthermore, I have chosen to post this glossary as an incomplete work in progress. Many entries remain unfinished as I work my way systematically toward closure.
Your patience is appreciated.

Allan R. Andrews, M.A., MTS
Annapolis Area Christian School, Annapolis, MD
Former editor, Pacific Stars and Stripes, Tokyo, Japan.

GLOSSARY NOTE: Many of the scriptures of the world's religions are written in languages other than English, some of which have no English equivalent letters or sounds. Because of this, a large number of definitions are transliterations of foreign words, which result in variant spellings in English of religious terms. Where it is possible, the editor has noted alternative spellings. An important example would be Koran and Qur'an, both English transliterations of the Arabic title of the holy book of Islam.
Because this glossary is intended primarily for journalists, matters of style, spelling and usage defer to the Associated Press Stylebook.

A fine tool for those seeking glossary information is "The Glossarist," the work of Australian Warwick Bone, aka "The Woz."  To get to religion and theology glossaries, simply type those words into the Glossarist's search tool.

Aaron: According to the Hebrew scriptures, Aaron was the brother of Moses selected to assist Moses after Moses displayed reluctance to become the leader of the Israelites. Aaron thus emerges as a chief spokesman and the first high priest of the Israelites during their sojourn in the desert on their flight from Egypt. Aaron also is known notoriously as the leader who allowed the Israelites to worship a golden calf. According to the scriptures, Aaron died in the 40th year of the Exodus and was 123 years old when he died.

Abhidamma Pitaka: Part of Theravada Buddhism's scriptures. See Tipitaka.

Abraham orAbram: Ancient patriarch considered the father of the covenant in Judaism. Also revered in Islam as a prophet. Christians generally acknowledge Abraham as one of the first followers and worshipers of the one God. Called upon by God to slay his eldest son, Isaac, as a sacrifice, Abraham obeyed only to have his hand stayed by an angel. In the Abrahamic Covenant, God promised Abraham "a chosen people" and "a great nation" and ordered him to travel from his home in search of the land of plenty. The stories of Abraham are recorded in the first book of the Torah, known in the Greek and English Bible as Genesis (Gen. 11-25).

Abrahamic covenant: As narrated in the first book of the Torah, or Genesis in the Greek and English Bible, God entered into a covenant with the patriarch Abraham (see above) to create "a chosen people" out of Abraham's descendants. This is considered the origin of the Hebrew nation.

Acarangasutra: A holy text of Jainism.

acolyte: One who assists the priest or celebrant and other clergy at the altar during a Christian service, often by handling mundane duties of candle lighting, cross bearing, retrieving and replacing articles needed for worship. Traditionally, acolytes have been young Christians and at one time were exclusively male; hence, the former designation of "altar boy." Nothing prevents an adult Christian of either gender from serving as an acolyte unless a particular church retains the tradition of exclusively male service during public worship. Acolytes are also engaged to assist clergy during weddings, baptisms and funerals.

Acts or Acts of the Apostles: A Christian writing contained in the New Testament outlining the activities of the earliest Christians following the death of Jesus Christ. Generally believed to have been written as an addendum to the Gospel of Luke, the Acts of the Apostles narrates, among other things, the Day of Pentecost, the martyrdom of Stephen, the conversion of St. Paul, and the missionary journeys of the Apostles (see below). In Bible references, the book is simply referred to as Acts, e.g., Acts 2:1.

Adam and Eve: The first man and woman created by God. According to the Hebrew scriptures, God created the first man out of the dust of the earth and called him Adam (the Hebrew word for man) and placed him in a garden in Eden. God then created a woman, fashioning her out of Adam's rib while he was sleeping. Adam called the first woman, Eve. The man and the woman were banished from the garden when Eve, tempted by the serpent, encouraged Adam to eat of the forbidden fruit of the garden. Christians generally believe that Adam's human, sinful nature was inherited by all humankind. Often used symbolically or metaphorically to represent the prototypic human being.

Adar: A month in the Hebrew calendar that typically matches late February or early March in the Western calendar. Adar is the time of the Jewish celebration of Purim.

A.D. (see C.E.): Abbreviation of Latin phrase, anno Domini, translated as "the year of the Lord." Traditional calendar abbreviation for reckoning the years after the birth of Christ. The years before the birth of Christ are reckoned as B.C., translated as "before Christ." Modern scholarship, seeking to be more objective and less centered on the heritage of Christianity, generally utilizes the abbreviations B.C.E., for "before the common era," and C.E. for "the common era." Generally viewed as a practice sensitive to Jewish and other non-Christian historical research, though many claim the system continues to discriminate against non-Christian and non-Jewish calendar reckonings. To avoid confusion, American newspapers generally follow the traditional A.D. and B.C. abbreviations.

Advent:The season in Western Christianity of preparation for Christmas. The name is taken from the Latin word for "coming."  Advent begins the Christian church year with the first Sunday before November 30, St. Andrew's Day, and lasts until Christmas Day (December 25). The traditional theme of Advent is expectation and anticipation, not only of the birth of the Savior, Jesus Christ, traditionally called the Nativity, but of his Second Coming as the glorious redeemer of the world. Christians in the Eastern Orthodox Church traditionally fast during Advent. Christmas hymns and carols are not technically Advent hymns unless the theme of expectation is stressed; thus, in many Christian churches, Christmas hymns are not sung until Christmas Day and the 12-day Christmas season that follows December 25. Prior to December 25, Christian hymnology emphasizes expectation and anticipation of the coming Lord, Savior and King.

adventism: A Christian doctrine emphasizing the imminence of the return of Jesus Christ to earth to reign as Lord and savior of humankind. See Seventh Day Adventist. See also Apocalypse below).

affirmations: Term used in Shinto to emphasize its core beliefs. The affirmations of Shinto are: 1) the family unit and family traditions, especially events marking changes in life stages, i.e., birth, maturity, marriage, death; 2) nature, a respect for all parts of the physical world; 3) cleanliness of body, utensils and living space, which is especially important for entertaining the presence of the spirits; 4) matsuri or festivals that provide a communal and social opportunity to honor the kami, or spirits.

AG: Unofficial but common abbreviation for the Assemblies of God denomination. See Assemblies.

agape:  Derived from Greek, the word in English Christian theology refers to the divine love of God for humankind and, in turn, the God-like love of Christians for others.  Spiritual love as distinguished from humanistic, brotherly love or erotic, romantic love.

Agni: One of several Hindu gods, the god of fire, now generally deemed subordinate to the gods Brahma, Vishnu or Shiva.

agnostic: One who maintains that God or some primary force cannot be demonstrated or proven or disproven. Taken from the Greek, a=without + gnosis=knowing, knowledge. An attitude of skepticism concerning matters of faith and belief. Do not confuse agnosticism with unbelief. Most religions differentiate between agnostics, who may be considered seekers, and atheists who vigorously assert their unbelief.

ahimsa: A Hindu principle pointing at the reverence for all of life, and thus a key principle in the daily behavior of Hindus, especially in relation to animals. Ahimsa is closely related to the growth of vegetarianism among Hindus and derivative religions such as Hare Krishna.

akikah: A birth ceremony practiced by some Muslims. The form of the ceremony is as varied as the culture of the parents. Many Muslims ignore celebration of this event.

Al-Isra Wal Miraj (orAl Isra Al Miraj): A day of celebration among Muslims marking the prophet Muhammad's journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (Al Isra), where Muslims believe he ascended (Al Miraj) and met with Allah and set out the prayer discipline observed by Muslims (five times each day facing Mecca). The day is celebrated on the 27th day of Rajab, the seventh month in the Muslim calendar. Al Isra University is a major research facility located in Madaba, Jordan.

Allah: Arabic word for God. The Muslim name for God. See Shahadah.

Alleluia: Latin term for "praise to the Lord." Greek term is similar, Hallelujah. Used in Christian church as an expression of praise throughout the church year, except during Lent, when Alleluia is omitted from the liturgy as a sign of penitence. Capitalized as an expression of praise; lower-case when used as a collective noun, as in, The congregation shouted their alleluias to the heavens.

All Saints Day; All Souls Day:  A Christian celebration on November 1 to commemorate historical persons--the saints--who have made significant contributions to the Christian church but are not remembered on any special day of the Christian calendar.  All Saints Day is preceeded by All Hallows Day (October 31), a solemn day that traditionally claimed witches and evil spirits roamed, but has become Americanized in the celebration of the fright and pranks of Halloween (literally, All Hallows Eve, based on the Middle English pronunciation; in old English the word hallow means saint).  All Souls Day is celebrated on November 2 and seeks to commemorate not only recognized saints but all the faithful departed.

"alpha and omega": The first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, used by Christians as a symbol of God's eternal existence as the beginning and the end of all things.  Some Christians also utilize the Greek letters alpha mu omega -- the first Greek letter, the middle Greek letter, and the last Greek letter -- to symbolize the eternal nature of the Son, Jesus Christ, as he who is "the same yesterday, today and forever."

Amaterasu: A high-ranking goddess of the sun, according to Shinto. At one time, the emperor of Japan was believed to be a divine descendant of the goddess Amaterasu. See Shinto.

America: A leading journal of news and opinion published by the Jesuit order of the Roman Catholic church.

American Baptist Church: See Protestant Denominations.

American Bible Society: Organization founded in 1816 in New York City with the expressed purpose of distributing the Holy Bible to every man, woman and child in a language they can readily understand.  Now a major publisher and distributor of Bibles. Best investigated at the organization's Web site at http://www.americanbible.org
See CEV (Contemporary English Version).

Anabaptist: Protestant sectarian movement arising in the 16th century that advocated baptism and church membership of adult believers only, nonresistance, and the separation of church and state. See baptism, Baptist, believer's baptism.

Analects or analects: When capitalized, this refers to the collected sayings and conversations of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. These form the bedrock of the developed religion of Confucianism. When written in lower case, analects refers to any generally gathered collection of writings.

Andrew's cross, St.: SeeX.

Anglican communion: The world-wide organization of Anglican-Episcopal churches. In the United States, the church is known as The Episcopal Church, which was formerly the Protestant Episcopal Church in the U.S.A. While in the Anglican communion each national church is independent, a special place of honor is reserved for the Archbishop of Canterbury. Every ten years, the Archbishop of Canterbury invites all bishops in the Anglican Communion to convene at Lambeth, the archbishop's palace and grounds located in London, England. The last Lambeth meetings were held in the summer of 1998. The Anglican Church of England technically known as The Church of England -- split from the Roman Catholic Church in the 15th century over the issue of the authority of the bishop of Rome, the pope. For one of the best references to the Anglican communion, see the Web site of The Anglican Domain.

Antichrist: A belief among many Christians, based on the Bible's Book of Revelation, that some individual will arise near the closing of recorded time to challenge the authority and power of Christ. Some Christians teach that this person is already alive; others teach that he or she will appear shortly. In the Bible, the Antichrist is associated with the symbolic number 666. See Apocalypse.

Antiochian Orthodox Christian: See Eastern Orthodox.

anti-Semitism: A prejudice, often expressed in physical abuse, against persons of Jewish faith and nationality. Historically, anti-Semitism has been justified by blaming Jews for the death of Jesus or by accusing Jews of being sly and cheating merchants or financiers. The low-point of anti-Semitism was expressed in Nazi Germany during the Holocaust (1933-1945), and it remains a philosophical position of many modern paramilitary and social hate groups and secret societies. The term is rooted in the Biblical character of Shem, a son of Noah who became an outcast.  Editors must be particularly sensitive to Anti-Semitic language or implications in their publications.

Apocalypse, apocalyptic: When capitalized, the word usually refers specifically to the Apocalypse of The Holy Bible, especially that of Christians. In the Christian New Testament, the last book is known as Revelation (or Revelations to Roman Catholics), which in Greek is Apocalypse. The word apocalypse has a Greek root meaning to uncover or to reveal. The word also refers to any one of several Jewish and Christian writings dating from 200 B.C.E. to 150 C.E. marked by an unknown or mysterious author, symbolic imagery, and the anticipation of a cosmic cataclysm during which God destroys the powers of evil and raises the faithful to life in a messianic kingdom. In literature, the word has been applied to a genre that focuses on end-of-the-world events. Apocalyptic Christian theology is also subsumed under the label of adventism or, more formally, under the label of eschatology.

Apocrypha: Ancient writings in Greek that were rejected as part of the Hebrew Bible but accepted by later Greek and Latin church fathers. Martin Luther, the Protestant Reformation leader, followed the Hebrew canon and rejected the books of the Apocrypha. As a result, many versions of the Bible include the Apocrypha, but still more versions do not include the books. Roman Catholics accept the Apocryphal books, and some called Deuterocanonicals, as part of the scriptures, and Anglicans generally accept the books as "instructive for the faith" though not inspired of God. Similarly, Eastern Orthodoxy accepts the Apocrypha, though to a varying degree. Most Protestant denominations, following Luther, reject the books as being not part of the inspired canon. The King James Version of the Bible, which ironically originally included the apocryphal books, now often appends these books to the Old Testament. The Apocrypha is comprised of the books known as: First and Second Esdras, Tobit, Judith, parts of Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, parts of Daniel, the Prayer of Manasses, and First and Second Maccabees. Roman Catholic editions generally integrate the Apocrypha into appropriate sections of the Old Testament as deuterocanonicals (second canon). Editors and reporters should avoid the common misconception of equating apocryphal literature with false or inauthentic writings. Several Apocryphas books have different names depending on the canon being followed. The best outline of this confusing collection of ancient documents can be found in the Introduction to the Apocrypha in The New Oxford Annotated Bible, beginning at page iiiAP. (see Bibliography).

apostle: Derived from the Greek term apostolos for envoy or messenger. More specifically, refers to original followers of Jesus of Nazareth, whom Christians proclaim as the Christ, the anointed King and Savior. Technically, an apostle is one commissioned or sent out to spread the word of the faith; thus, the Christian apostles are those whom Jesus commissioned to build his church. See disciple.

Apostle's Creed: A Christian Trinitarian creed dating to the 5th century C.E. So-named because it is based on the teachings of the apostles of Jesus Christ, not because it can be traced to the apostles themselves. Cf. Nicene Creed.

Apostolic succession: A doctrine or dogma within Christianity that certain branches of the church trace their line of leadership to the original apostles. Doctrine is based on Jesus' commissioning of the apostles, especially the Apostle Peter, considered by many Christians to be the first bishop of the church in an unbroken line of bishops to the present.

archbishop: The highest administrative clergy person or official in a church or district of a church following an episcopal hierarchy; a kind of chief bishop. In the Roman Catholic Church, the chief archbishop officially is the Pope, whose ecclesiastical title is Bishop of Rome. There are many archbishops in the several church organizations that follow an episcopal system of hierarchy, some who administer a diocese and some who are given the title as an honorary rank. Archbishops generally outrank bishops but in the Roman Catholic church are outranked by cardinals.   In the Anglican Communion, which has many archbishops, the archbishop of Canterbury is afforded informally a special place of honor as leader of the church. He is often cited as "first among equals."  Many large churches of a particular organization or denomination are administered by archbishops. Such an administrative unit is known as an archdiocese.

archdiocese: The largest administrative unit of a Christian church with an episcopal government, generally overseen by an archbishop.

Arhat (sometimes Arahat): A Buddhist term for one who attains enlightenment through solitude and asceticism. Associated with Theravada school of Buddhism, in which the arhat is considered a saint of solitude.

Ark, Noah's: A floating vessel built by Noah and his sons to escape the flood brought on by God's judgment against humankind, according to the story told in Genesis (Chapter 6) of the Bible. Noah and his family were ordered to bring into the ark two of every animal to preserve the species. The craft survived a storm that lasted forty days and nights. When the flood subsided, the ark came to rest on Mr. Ararat, and Noah and his family continued the ancient civilization.

Ark of the covenant: The box or vessel in which Israel transported the tablets containing the Law and in which dwelt the spirit of God during the Israelites wandering in the wilderness after their Exodus from Egypt. Some ancient manuscripts attribute powers to the ark. (Note: A version of this ancient vessel was characterized in the movie, "Raiders of the Lost Ark.")

Armenian Church: A branch of the Oriental Orthodox Church of Christianity. See Oriental Orthodox.

Arminian, Arminianism: A Reformation doctrine named after the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, who challenged some of the teachings of Calvinism, especially Calvin's doctrine of predestination and foreordination. While still essentially Reformed and almost totally Calvinistic, Arminianism argues that God did not predestine who would be saved prior to the Creation, as Calvin taught. Arminiamism should not be confused or infused with the doctrine of Pelagianism, which teaches a system diametrically opposed to Calvinism at almost every point. Popular Arminianism places heavy stress on personal repentance and reformation of life through human choice.

asceticism: A practice in many religions of seeking to achieve holiness or liberation or enlightenment through denial of one's own needs and the suppression of one's desires. Typically involves vows and/or exercises of fasting, celibacy and poverty. Some ascetics also practice flaggelation.

Ash Wednesday: Christian holy day marking the beginning of Lent, forty-six days (the 7th Wednesday) prior to Easter. The name is taken from a practice of imposing ashes on the foreheads of penitent believers who acknowledge their unworthiness to receive God's grace and salvation and are reminded of their bodily origin in dust and their eventual return to dust (ashes). The date of Ash Wednesday changes annually and depends on the reckoning of Easter Sunday.

Assemblies of God: A 20th-century denomination that grew out of the Pentecostal-Holiness tradition of so-called charismatic Christianity emphasizing the work and gifts of the Holy Spirit, the third person of the Trinity. Organized in 1914, the Assemblies, often abbreviated AG, is the largest Pentecostal church in America. While Assemblies of God adherents independently shun association with mainline Protestantism, the church is considered within the same tradition of Evangelical or Fundamentalist churches that grew out of the Protestant Reformation and place heavy emphasis on the authority and reliability of the Scriptures as the written Word of God.

Assyria: Ancient Biblical nation and foe of Israel. One of the fertile crescent nations north and east of the Tigris River that opposed Babylonia to the South and Mesopotamia to the West. Assyria had its own religion that focussed on the warrior king Ashur. Do not confuse with modern nation of Syria.

atheist: Derived from the Greek a=without + theos=God, translated as one who denies any reality of God or a primary force in the universe, or more specifically, one who denies a theology; i.e., a systematic belief about God as expressed in the world's religions. Sometimes mistakenly applied to one who denies a specific religion. See pagan.

atman: Hindu term for the soul, which Hindus see as having no beginning or ending. The essential self.

AV:  Abbreviation for Authorized Version of the Bible, the original name given to what is now more frequently referred to as the King James Version (KJV) of 1611.

Avesta: Scriptures of Zoroastrianism. Also sometimes called Zend Avesta.
 
 

Babism; the Bab: A modern offshoot of the Shiite sect of Islam, founded in 1844 by Mirza Ali Muhammad of Shiraz (1819-1850), who believed himself to be the Imam and Bab (from the Arabic word meaning ``gate'') of revelation. He contended that no truth was final. He adopted the title of Bab-ud-Din (``Gate of the Faith'') and enforced strict morality on his followers. Cast into jail, he was put to death in 1850 by a firing squad, and Persian (Iranian) authorities tried to exterminate the Babis. The founder of the Baha'i faith, Mizra Husayn Alin Nuri, believed himself to be the predicted Bahaullah of the Babis, and took that name. Modern Baha'i annually celebrates as a holy day the execution of the Bab on July 9.

Babylonia: An ancient civilization that takes in much of the fertile crescent that includes the lower Tigris and Euphrates rivers to the north of the Persian Gulf. Its capital, Babylon, is recognized as one of the greatest cities of world history and has come to represent, especially in Judeo-Christian traditions, the force and power of human pride operating contrary to God.

Babylonian Captivity: A historical period following the destruction of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E. Many Jews at that time were carried away to Babylonia as slaves, but continued to practice their religion in captivity. In 538 B.C.E., the Persian King Cyrus the Great decreed the restoration of the Jews to their worship center in Jerusalem.

Baha'i: A syncretistic faith founded in 19th century Persia (now Iran) that places great emphasis on the unity of all religions and accepts that God has been manifest at many points in history, in particular through Moses, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad and Bahaullah. Baha'i stresses the equality of men and women, the elimination of prejudice, and a strong morality among other things, and maintains a "theology" of equality, practicality and progress. Its chief writings are those of Bahaullah, one of which is Kitab-I-Iqan. Baha'i, which has no clergy, is regarded as the fastest growing religion in the 20th century, especially in Africa and North America, with headquarters and a publishing house in Wilmette, Illinois. Adherents stress the equality of men and women, universal education, world peace, and the creation of a federal system of world government.  A popular expression of Baha'i is as follows:  "The Oneness of God, The Oneness of Religion, and the Oneness of Humanity."  Followers of Baha'i generally revere all sacred Scriptures, avoid the use of alcohol and drugs, observe sexual chastity, obey the government in power, avoid gossip and consider work as a form of worship.  

Bahaullah: Persian founder of Baha'i faith, born Mizra Husayn Ali Nuri in 1817, he was a member of the sect of Shiite Islam known as Babism. He believed himself to be the predicted messianic leader, known as the Bahaullah ("Glory to God"), and took that name. In 1852, Bahaullah had a vision of God's plan for all humanity, after which he wrote the books that comprise the scriptures of the Baha'i faith: Kitab-I-Iqan: The Book of Certitude; Epistle to the Son of the Wolf;The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys; and The Hidden Words of Bahaullah. He died in 1892. 

baptism: A Christian sacrament, ordinance or ceremony marked by ritual use of water and admitting the recipient to the Christian community symbolizing the believer's burial with Christ and resurrection. Christians practice three forms of baptism: immersion, where the believer is totally submerged in a body or tank of water by a clergy person; sprinkling, where the believer is sprayed with water by the clergy person; and affusion, where the believer has water poured upon his head at a font by the clergy person. Many Protestant denominations are separated by the form of this ritual.  Many Christian denominations, particularly Baptists, object to calling baptism a sacrament, preferring instead a term such as ceremony or ordinance, and insisting that there is no saving grace in the act itself apart from belief.  Thus, many insist that candidates for baptism be accountable adults before making this public expression of an inner grace. (See Believer's Baptism.)  The term is also used by non-Christians to describe ritual purification using water. Christian Science uses the term to denote purification by or submergence in Spirit.

Baptist: One who baptizes. When capitalized, the term generally refers to a member or adherent of an evangelical Protestant denomination marked by congregational polity and baptism by immersion of adult believers only, e.g., Southern Baptist or Conservative Baptist.  Some Baptists eschew inclusion in the larger category of "Protestant," but at least since the 16th century the term "Protestant" has come to refer to any Christian group apart from Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.

Baptist church: Baptists form a major division of Christianity, but there technically is no single, unified "Baptist Church.". Baptist churches operate under the authority of the local church; therefore, it is incorrect to speak of any body larger than the local church as "the Baptist Church." Many associations of Baptist churches exist, the largest being the Southern Baptist Association. See Protestant Denominations.

baptism of the spirit: A phrase used by Christian Pentecostal and Holiness groups to refer to a believer's being "filled with the Holy Spirit" in a manner similar to that recorded in the Second Chapter of Acts in the New Testament. Sometimes seen as the determining characteristic of Charismatic Christianity.

Bardo Thodol: A Tibetan religious text popularly known as "The Tibetan Book of the Dead," which many Buddhists consider a misleading translation, claiming a better English translation would be: "Liberation by Hearing During One's Existence in the Bardo." The Bardo Thodol (pronounced Thötröl) that is read to a person for forty-nine days after their death. It describes the series of visions that pass through the awareness of the deceased during that period. It helps them realize where they are, and keeps them focused during the transformation between bodies. According to tradition, the text is based on oral teachings by Padmasambhava and was recorded circa 760.

bardo: Tibetan Buddhist concept for the realm of the dead or the place of passage from life.

bar mitzvah: The Jewish initiatory ceremony recognizing a boy who reaches his 13th birthday as a bar mitzvah "son of the divine Law" who takes on the duties and responsibilities of religious life.

bat mitzvah: Jewish initiatory ceremony similar to a bar mitzvah for a young woman who reaches the religious responsibility age of 13. Literally, "a daughter of the divine Law." Some Jewish congregations do not recognize a bat mitzvah.

B.C.: Literally, before Christ or the Christian era. A Western calendar means of dating ancient and prehistoric time. See A.D., B.C.E.

B.C.E.: Scholarly adaptation of Western calendar to avoid reference to Christianity. Refers to time "before the common era." See A.D.

believer's baptism: A term used by some Christian denominations to distinguish the ritual of baptism from infant baptism, usually because of a conviction prohibiting infant baptism. Cf. Anabaptist.

Beltane: A May Day festival originating with the Gaels or Celts usually celebrated on the first or the third of May. Part of a pagan fire ceremony still celebrated in Edinburgh, Scotland.

bemidbar: Hebrew name for the book of Numbers in the Torah. See Numbers.

Bhagavad Gita: Sacred scripture of Hinduism originally written in Sanskrit. A devotional work in poetic form. Literally translated, it means the song of the Krishna (the blessed one). The most widely revered writing of the Hindu religion.

Bible, The Holy: The sacred scriptures of the Jewish and Christian religions. Actually a collection of writings compiled over many years and authorized by various religious councils rather than a single book. Original manuscripts, of which none are extant, were written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. Christians generally adopted the Hebrew Bible and added Greek and Aramaic writings. For a fuller discussion of the various compilations, see Versions of the Bible. See also Dead Sea Scrolls, Nag Hammadi.  [Editors should note that the word "bible" is often used in an omnibus sense referring to a key volume addressing a specific topic; for example, "The Hunter's Bible" or "the Macintosh Bible."  Such usage appears rooted in the term for book; that is, biblios.  When referring to the sacred Scriptures of Jews or Christians, the term is traditionally capitalized.]

Bible-believing:  Somewhat reverse perjorative term used by some to distinguish their theological position from that of others with more liberal views.  [The Associated Press Style Book advises avoiding this adjectival phrase as applied to various Christians, e.g., "Bible-believing" Christian.  AP rightly notes that all Christians believe in the Bible; the degree to which they follow it is a matter of interpretation.]

Bible Belt:

biblical studies: An academic specialty focusing on the history, languages, archaeology, literary forms, etc., of the Bible. Often undertaken without any religious commitment by the scholar.

Black Elk: An Ogala Sioux holy man, born in 1863, Black Elk was present at Wounded Knee, considered the last stand of the Native Americans against their European conquerors. Books describing his life and the customs of the Lakota Sioux have influenced modern thinking about Native Americans and their religions. The three texts concerning Black Elk that have influenced modern thinking about the sacred traditions and spirituality of the Ogala Sioux are: 1) Black Elk Speaks: The Life Story of a Holy Man of the Ogala Sioux (U. of Nebraska Press, 1979); 2) The Sixth Grandfather (Harper and Row, 1990); and 3) The Sacred Pipe: Black Elk and the Seven Rites of the Ogala Sioux (U. of Oklahoma Press, 1953). "Black Elk Speaks" was originally collected in 1931 by John G. Neihardt and is considered to be the book that aroused interest in Native American heritage and religion, especially among young Native Americans. Some consider the book the Bible of Native American tribes. A 1999 survey conducted by religion professor Philip Zaleski of Smith College ranked "Black Elk Speaks" among the top 10 of a list of the 100 best spiritual books of the 20th century. Black Elk died in 1950.

Black Muslims: An unofficial title associated with the Nation of Islam during the years that it became a popular movement in America through the activist efforts of Malcolm X. The label derives from a 1961 book, The Black Muslims in America, by C. Eric Lincoln.

blessed sacrament: In some Christian liturgical settings, the bread and wine set aside for communion or Eucharist that has been consecrated by a clergy person.

Boddhisattva: The essence of enlightenment in Buddhism. From the Sanskrit words for enlightenment (bodhi) and essential being (sattva). In Mahayana Buddhism, the one who compassionately foregoes entry into Nirvana in order to lead others into the way of enlightenment. Often worshipped as a deity by Mahayanan Buddhists.

Bodh Gaya: A small town in the northern India state of Bihar that is the site of the Buddha's enlightenment. At the Buddha's time the town was named Uruvela, but subsequently came to be known as either Sambodhi, Bodhimanda or more usually as Mahabodhi. The name Bodh Gaya is of recent origin, dating from about the 18th century.

Bodhi Day: The observance, usually in December, of the Buddha's day of enlightenment. Ceremonies are typically held in Buddhist temples.

Bodhi tree: The name given to the tree at Bodh Gaya under which the Buddha sat on the night he attained enlightenment. The tree itself was a type of fig with the botanical name Ficus religiosa. In the centuries after the Buddha, the Bodhi tree became a symbol of the Buddha's presence. Many Bodhi trees at Buddhist temples are believed to be offshoots of the original. In popular Buddhist piety, these trees have become objects of worship.

Book of Common Prayer:  Official book of prayers and liturgical services for the Anglican-Episcopal Church.  Several variations exist depending on location; i.e., Australian Book of Common Prayer, Welsh Book of Common Prayer, American Book of Common Prayer.  Original was compiled by Anglican cleric and bishop Thomas Cranmer of England in the mid-1500's.  The book has gone through several revisions.  Among American Episcopalians there is mild division between the modernized edition of 1979 and the traditional edition of 1928; some parishes have disregarded the 1979 edition and continue to conduct services according to rituals in the 1928 edition.

born again: A Christian concept of regeneration through belief and trust in the saving work of Jesus Christ. The phrase is taken from the third chapter of the Gospel of St. John where Jesus tells Nicodemus, "Except a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God." (verse 3). Many Evangelical Christians and Fundamentalist Christians have co-opted the Biblical phrase as the sine qua non of Christian experience and refer to these exclusively defined believers as "born-again Christians."

Brahma: The creator god of Hinduism, one of three foremost gods. See also Shiva, Vishnu. The concept of the ultimate ground of all being in Hinduism.

Brahman: A Hindu of the highest caste. A caste usually reserved for the Hindu priesthood. Note the spelling variant. While not rigidly applied, Brahman usually is distinguished in English from Brahmin.

Brahmin: Especially in English, a person of refined, cultural taste with high intellectual and cultural standards. Often associated with the so-called Boston Brahmins of 19th century literary fame. Note the spelling differentiated from Brahman.

bread and wine: Christian symbols for the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Part of the ceremony or sacrament of communion or Eucharist in a Christian church patterned after the so-called Last Supper at which Jesus initiated the sharing of the bread and wine as symbols of sharing in his death and resurrection. In some Christian congregations, wafers are substituted for bread, and in others grape juice is substituted for wine.

b're-sheet: The Hebrew term for Genesis. See the Genesis entry.

brit bat (brit hayyim): A relatively new Jewish ritual -- based on brit milah for males -- intended to welcome girls into Jewish life as daughters of the covenant. The ceremony takes various forms, and like the ceremony for males, occurs on the eighth day of the child's life. Not all Jewish congregations practice brit bat.

brit milah: A Jewish life-stage ceremony involving the circumcision of the male child and the blessing appertaining to the ceremony on the eighth day of the child's life. Jews and some Christians practice this ritual in accordance with the Torah (Genesis 17:10). A ceremony marking the child as a son of the covenant.

Buddha: In Buddhism, the enlightened one; i.e., Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha Gautama. A person who has attained Buddhahood by attaining enlightenment. Compare Boddhisattva. Commonly called "the Buddha," which means "the enlightened one" in Sanskrit. The Buddha was probably born in Kapilavastu, India, just inside present-day Nepal.

Buddha Day: April 8 is the most important of Buddhist holidays. It commemorates the birthday of the founder of Buddhism in the 6th century B.C.E. The Buddha had the given name of Siddhartha, the family name Gautama, and the clan name Shaka. He is commonly called "the Buddha."

Buddhism: Buddhism is one of the four largest religions of the world with 307 million followers. Founded in southern Nepal in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C.E. by Siddharta Gautama, who became known as the Buddha (Enlightened One), Buddhism teaches that meditation and the practice of good religious and moral behavior can lead to Nirvana, the state of enlightenment, although before achieving Nirvana one is subject to repeated lifetimes that are good or bad depending on one's karma. Existence, for Buddhists, is a realm of suffering. Achievement of Nirvana brings an end to suffering, desire and self-importance. Nirvana is attained only by meditation and by a path of righteousness in action, attitude and thought.

Byzantine rite: A Christian liturgy based on the ancient Greek practices. Continued in the Eastern Orthodox Church and distinguished from the Roman rite.
 
 

Caliph: Literally, a "deputy of the messenger of Allah." In Islam, a caliph represented God in the theocratic Islamic community. God is the source of the state's power and law, and the caliph is God's representative. The people and the lands under the control of the caliph were said to be a part of the Caliphate. Abu Bakr was named first Caliph at the death of Muhammed in 632 C.E. Several others succeeded him. Today, the Caliphate of the Sunni Muslims remains vacant. Shi'ite Muslim sects have a complex doctrine concerning the caliphate.

Calvary: According to the Christian New Testament gospels, the hill outside of Jerusalem upon which Jesus was crucified on a Roman cross between two condemned criminals on crosses at either side. The hill with its crosses have become symbols of Christianity. The location is also known as Golgotha, or the place of the skull.  Editor's Note:  Journalists should be alert to the common misspelling and mispronunciation of this word as cavalry.

Calvin, John: French lawyer who settled in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1536, and became one of the major forces in the so-called Protestant Reformation and its most systematic theologian. Generally considered the father of Reformed Christian doctrine that has influenced Presbyterian, Reformed and other denominations of the Protestant church. Calvin is the author of the Institutes of the Christian Religion that spell out his key doctrines often referred to as Calvinism -- of the sovereignty of God, total depravity of humankind, the atonement in Jesus Christ, predestination and election.

Calvinism: Influential systematic Christian doctrines worked out by John Calvin. Often summarized in five points and memorized through the pneumonic device of T-U-L-I-P, the major doctrines of Calvinism are: 1) Total depravity of humankind, which asserts that humans are sinful and can do nothing on their own behalf to earn God's favor or salvation; 2) Unconditional election, which asserts that before the world was formed God predetermined and foreordained who among humans would be drawn to him for salvation; 3) Limited atonement, which avows that Jesus Christ in his life, death and resurrection bore all the sin and punishment deserved by humankind, all of whom God knew and foreordained to salvation; 4) Irresistible grace (sometimes categorized as effective calling) that affirms those who are foreordained will be drawn to God through the saving activity of Jesus Christ; and 5) Perseverance of the saints, which affirms that those who are called and saved by Jesus Christ will remain so despite all subsequent sin and evil that surrounds them. Calvinism stresses God's sovereignty and grace and generally decries any doctrine or ritual that can be interpreted as a human effort to earn or win God's favor. Compare Arminianism. See also Pelagianism.

Canaan: Ancient name for Palestine, which was conquered by the Israelites under Moses and Joshua and believed by them to be "the promised land." Its occupants, known as Canaanites, were probably related to the Amorites of the ancient world.

Candlemas:  A Christian celebration for the dedication of a sanctuary's candles. Usually celebrated in early February, the ceremonies reflect another celebration of Jesus' parents taking him as an infant to the Temple to present him to God.  During this celebration, Simeon proclaimed the infant as "the light of the world."  Christians thus light candles to remind themselves of Simeon's words, which have been incorporated into the liturgy of the Christian Church as the nunc dimittis, typically translated as "Lord, now let your servant depart in peace, . . ."  The name has also been taken by several pagan and witches' religious groups that celebrate holidays such as Groundhog Day on February 2 as a time for making and burning candles. See Imbolc.

Canterbury, archbishop: See Anglican Communion.

cardinal: In Roman Catholic Christianity, an archbishop appointed by the Pope, and generally seen as an assistant subordinate only to the Pope. Cardinals become members of the College of Cardinals who select a succeeding Pope, usually from among their own numbers. Cardinals are distinguished by their crimson religious garb.

Carmelite: From Roman Catholic Christianity, this refers to a hermit of the Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel founded in Palestine in the 12th century, and later developed into a Western order for Christian friars by St. Simon Stock. A later movement embraced an order of nuns. Carmelites are known for their disavowal of ownership of personal or communal property.

Catholic, catholic: When capitalized, the word refers specifically to that branch of Christianity whose head is the archbishop of Rome, the Pope, generally known as the Roman Catholic church. In lower case, the word is a synonym for universal or worldwide, as in "the catholic church." The word is most familiar to non-Roman Catholic Christians because of its inclusion in the Apostle's Creed, where believers affirm, "I believe in the holy, catholic church, . . ., etc."

C.E. ( see A.D.): "Common Era." Scholarly adaptation of Western calendar reckoning to avoid Christian reference. Identical in reckoning dates to A.D. [Modern journalists generally retain the traditional abbreviations of B.C. and A.D.]

celebrant: One who conducts a religious rite, especially a Christian priest who conducts a service such as Mass or Holy Eucharist.

CEV:  Abbreviation for Contemporary English Version of the Bible, a modern translation published by the American Bible Society in 1995 as an easily read introductory volume for persons with little or no acquaintance with the Holy Bible.

Chanuka: Alternative spelling of Jewish holiday of the festival of lights. See Hanukkah.

Charismatic Christianity: A form of Christianity noted for its emphasis on the so-called gifts of the Holy Spirit, which are expressed in believers in the form of healing, prophetic utterances and speaking in tongues along with other enthusiastic, emotion-filled expressions of worship, for example, dancing and swooning. These expressions are particularly important in Pentecostal and Holiness sects and denominations of the Protestant church, but they are not limited as such. Branches of mainline Roman Catholic and Episcopal churches have absorbed charismatic teachings. Some modern denominations such as the Assemblies of God are noted for emphasis on the charismatic gifts. Some Christian denominations decry such modern expressions, claiming charismatic gifts ended with the apostolic age. The experiences are believed to be derived from passages in the New Testament such as Acts 2.  [Journalists should be alert to the popular Christian music culture that includes a group known as "The Second Chapter of Acts."]  The term "Charismatics" is sometimes reserved for those members of Pentecostal groups who belong to mainstream churches.  According to Newsweek magazine, the Charismatic movement--especially in mainline churches--began in the 1960s in California.

Chi Rho: First two Greek characters in the title "Christos" (Christ), and thus a symbol of Christianity. Often the anagram of Chi Rho is stylized into a cross and sword intersecting. It is a widely accepted symbol of many Protestant denominations, particularly some Presbyterians, and is often used as a symbol of unity at Christian marriages.  The emporer Constantine in 311 had this monogram painted on the helmets and shields of his soldiers after he dreamed before battle that he saw this sign and heard the words, "By this sign you will conquer."

Christ: Literally, the Greek term meaning "anointed one." For Christians, Jesus of Nazareth is the anointed Savior and Son of God; thus, he is called Jesus Christ, or sometimes, Jesus, the Christ.

Christadelphian, Christadelphianism: A nineteenth century Christian sect that developed in America though founded by a British doctor, John Thomas. With many surface similarities to orthodox Christianity, Christadelphians reject the doctrine of the Trinity and believe instead in one Supreme God and a plurality of manifestations, or Elohim (the Hebrew title of God that Christadelphians translate as "mighty ones"), among whom is Jesus. The divine nature of Christ is secondary or derived from the one God. On many other basic Christian doctrines, Christadelphianism veers toward a more humanistic view of life and righteousness. Christadelphians are often confused with Jehovah's Witnesses, but the groups are quite distinct.

Christian Century: A leading religious periodical of news and opinion associated with liberal and moderate mainline Protestant Christianity.

Christian, Christianity: Christianity is the largest of the four great religions of humankind. Christianity began as a sect of Judaism that saw in Jesus of Nazareth the fulfillment of Hebrew prophesies that God would send a Messiah. Christians worship Jesus as God, claiming that through his sacrificial death he carried the burden of sin for all humans and through his triumph over death in his resurrection, an event celebrated at Easter, he demonstrated his divine power and love and assured that believers also will be resurrected from death. One who believes in Jesus Christ as Messiah, savior and Son of God is called a Christian.

Christian Church (Disciples of Christ): See Protestant Denominations.

Christian Coalition: A political activist group comprised of conservative Republicans in the United States who generally also represent conservative theological views. Though closely related, it should not be thought of as co-extensive with the so-called "religious right."  The Christian Coalition was founded by televangelist Pat Robertson and is closely associated with his Virginia-based Christian conglomerate.

Christian Science: A modern denomination derived in 1866 from special interpretations of the Holy Bible put forth in the writing of Mary Baker Eddy, collected under the title, Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures. The official title of the church is the Church of Christ, Scientist, with its headquarters called "the mother church" in Boston, Mass. Christian Science teaches a practice of spiritual healing claiming that cause and effect are mental and that sin, sickness, and death will be destroyed by understanding completely the divine principles of Jesus' teaching and healing. Christian Scientists sometimes refuse medical treatment, and generally deny death, claiming it is a "passing over" into the realm of spirit. Christian Science has no clergy as normally defined, but its leaders are called readers, practitioners, and lecturers who lead congregations in readings from the Bible and from Science and Health, conduct a public ministry, and give public lectures on Christian Science. Its nationwide network of "Reading Rooms" provide opportunities for believers and non-believers to relax and sample the literature of Christian Science, although users of these rooms are generally expected to make a small purchase of literature. The church also subsidizes the prestigious international newspaper, published every Monday through Friday, The Christian Science Monitor.

Christian Science Monitor: A daily (Monday-Friday) international newspaper published in Boston, Mass., and circulated worldwide. Respected by professional journalists and renowned for its international correspondence, the newspaper is heavily subsidized by the Church of Christ, Scientist. The newspaper does not proselytize in its news and feature columns but publishes a daily "Home Forum" that includes Christian Science writings.

Christianity Today: The leading journal and news magazine of more conservative Protestantism, especially Evangelical Christianity. See neo-evangelicalism.

Christmas: Literally, Christ's mass. A Christian celebration on December 25 of the birth of Jesus in a manger in Bethlehem. Christians believe that in this event God entered into human form, an event referred to as the Incarnation. Most Christians acknowledge the date of December 25 is a convenient calendar date for celebration and not an accurate representation of the day on which Jesus was born. It is from this event that the Gregorian calendar takes its distinctions of B.C. and A.D.

Chronicles, Books of: Historical books of the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament that record the rise of the kingdom of Israel. See also, Samuel, Books of and Kings, Books of.

Chun-tzu: A concept in Confucianism. The outward manifestation of the Confucian notion of Jen. Someone who makes others feel at ease by accommodating their will rather than asserting one's own. Persons with Chun-tzu are considered genuine ladies and gentlemen in the Western sense.

chung: The Confucian concept of being faithful to oneself without being self-absorbed.

Church of Christ, Scientist: See Christian Science.

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: See Mormon.

Church of Scientology: A religious group founded in 1954 by science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard based on his book Dianetics that he published in 1950. Souls can be cleared of negative energy through processing, Hubbard taught. Scientology's tenets have been challenged and its practices investigated by governmental agencies, often because of complaints about its fund-raising practices and recruitment policies. Membership figures are not publicly disclosed, but an estimated 500 Scientology facilities exist around the world.

cities of refuge: A Biblical Hebrew concept for the protection of persons guilty of manslaughter. The person who fled from an accidental killing went to a designated city and pleaded at the gate for refuge. Once inside, vengeance from blood relatives of the victim could not be extracted within the city of refuge. The perpetrator remained there until a judgment of guilt or innocence was rendered. In the Hebrew Bible, six cities, three on each side of the Jordan River, are designated as cities of refuge.

clergy, cleric: A group of leaders in churches or religious groups who perform official duties associated with the worship and ministry of the religion. Christian clergy are ordained or set apart and dedicated after examination before the community of believers -- for such purposes. In most Christian denominations, only ordained clergy are permitted to administer sacraments such as Eucharist, baptism, and marriage, except under emergency or unusual circumstances. Most religions demand their clergy go through some initiatory process, and most Christian denominations have high educational expectations of their clergy. The singular form is clergyperson or cleric.

Code of Hammurabi: One of the great ancient law codes found inscribed on a column at Susa near Asia Minor. Hammurabi was king of Babylon in the late 18th century B.C.

College of Cardinals: See Cardinal.

commentary: Journalists are familiar with this term as a form of elaborating and interpreting the news of the day. The term is used in a religious sense to refer to books, essays or other writings designed to interpret and elaborate a religion's scriptures. Usually commentaries are the writings of rabbis, priests, clergy or other ordained or specially trained leaders of a religious group. Several examples: The Jewish Midrash, while serving as a book of instruction in the faith, is largely a collection of traditional commentaries on the Hebrew Scriptures by teachers writing from about 400 B.C.E. until several hundred years after the introduction of Christianity. Christian scholars often produce commentaries that are line-by-line interpretations of the books that comprise the Old and New Testaments. The book, Science and Health With Key to Scriptures, by Mary Baker Eddy, is essentially a commentary on the Bible from the perspective of Christian Science.

Commentary: A leading periodical of news and opinion representing Jewish thinking and perspectives.  (Editor's note:  Web surfers alert!  The magazine is located at www.commentary.org.  Going to www.commentary.com will take one to a socialist party site.)

Commonweal: A journal of arts, news and opinion published by Roman Catholic intellectual laypersons and not officially affiliated with the Roman Catholic church though often expressing moderate and conservative Christian thoughts. Several well-known columnists from newspapers such as the New York Times and the Washington Post have been regular contributors to this periodical.

communion: The Christian celebration or remembrance of the Last Supper, during which Jesus shared bread and wine with his followers as signs of his sacrifice for the sins of humanity. Also called Eucharist or The Great Feast in more liturgical churches, it is a periodic ritual involving communal sharing of bread and wine (or reasonable substitutes). In Eastern Orthodox traditions, communion is called The Divine Liturgy. Differences in theology determine the interpretation of the communion event. See Transsubstantiation.

Confucianism: A set of values based on the teachings of Confucius, a Chinese philosopher in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C.E., whose sayings and dialogues, known collectively as the Analects, were written down by his followers. Confucianism stresses individual, family and societal relations be based on li (proper behavior) and jen (sympathetic attitude). Its philosophy was challenged by Taoism and Buddhism, which were partially incorporated to create neo-Confucianism during the Sung dynasty of China (CE 960-1279). The overthrow of the Chinese monarchy and the Communist revolution during the twentieth century severely weakened the influence of Confucianism on modern Chinese culture, but its influence has increased in other East Asian nations.

Confucius: Chinese teacher and philosopher of the 6th and 5th centuries B.C.E. whose teachings provide the foundation of Confucianism. He is probably the most renowned figure in Chinese history. His name is also written K'ung Fu-tzu or K'ung-tzu.

congregationalism, Congregationalist: A Protestant denomination that follows a locally administered church structure, generally eschewing any hierarchy of bishops, archbishops and other administrative clergy and placing authority in the hands of the local congregation. Congregationalism grew out of the English Independent Church and Anabaptist influences on churches of Colonial America. The Congregational Church is now a formal denomination and should not be confused with other congregationalist forms of church governance such as the several forms of Baptist or so-called "Free" churches. The United Church of Christ is one of the latest and largest of the congregationalist churches.

Conservative Judaism: A division of Judaism that usually takes a more centrist position on worship and religious behavior than do the more liberal advocates of Reform Judaism and the more tradition-bound advocates of Orthodox Judaism. See Judaism.

Council of Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU): A loosely governed membership of colleges and universities adhering to Evangelical Christian doctrine, especially a respect for the authority of the Bible and the Lordship of Jesus Christ. Headquarters is in Washington, D.C. Web site: http://www.cccu.org. The consortium (the group originated as The Coalition of Christian Colleges and Universities, but changed its name to distinguish itself from the conservative politically active religious group known as The Christian Coalition) in many ways acts as a university for the smaller individual member schools and offers special classes and seminars for students and faculty of the CCCU member schools. It also provides a reciprocal program of student and faculty exchanges among the member schools.

consubstantiation: A Lutheran interpretation of the Christian communion or Eucharist. See Transubstantiation.

Coptic:  An ancient Egyptian language whose alphabet is derived from the Greek alphabet. One of the most famous of Coptic writings is the so-called Gospel of Thomas.

Counter-Reformation: A generally intellectual renaissance movement within the Roman Catholic Church in the 14th century, spearheaded by thinkers such as Erasmus and the Jesuits founded by St. Ignatius Loyola, that arose to counter the criticisms of the church made by the Protestant Reformers, most notably Luther and Calvin. The clash of ideas at times led to violent persecutions of non-conforming groups.

covenant: A binding agreement made between two parties. The Covenant usually refers to one of several entered into by the Hebrew God and ancient Jews. Christians and some Jews often divide the covenants of the Holy Bible into those related to the person with whom God covenanted. Thus, they speak of the Adamic Covenant, the Abrahamic or Abramic Covenant, the Noahic Covenant, the Mosaic Covenant, etc. Jews place high value on the Abramic covenant as that which established the Jews as a "chosen people." The Mosaic covenant God's covenant with Moses sometimes called the Exodus Covenant -- on Mount Sinai provided the Ten Commandments and the establishment of the nation of Israel. Christians often refer to the Old and New Covenants that roughly parallel those made in the Old and New Testaments as the Old and New Covenants. The New Covenant is seen as the pledge by God to save humankind through his son, Jesus Christ.

Coverdale, Miles: A 15th-century English clergyman and Bible translator who was the first to render the entire Bible, including the Apocrypha, into English in 1535. His Bible, often called the Coverdale Bible, was published in Zurich, Switzerland.

cross: As a religious symbol, the cross is associated with the death of Jesus Christ and has become a universal sign of Christianity. The cross was a form of Roman execution by crucifixion, and Jesus was crucified outside Jerusalem. Many forms of crosses have developed as symbols of the Christian religion., and it has become a ritual of Christian devotion to make the sign of the cross with the hands at certain points in the Christian liturgy. See X.

cross-quarter holiday: A calendar phenomenon marking a day between the four quarters of the seasonal calendar. For example, the point between the spring equinox and the summer solstice. These days are especially important to Neo-Pagan festivals and holidays.

Cursillo: A worldwide Christian growth fellowship. Begun on the island of Majorca, Spain, in 1949, Cursillo is sometimes characterized as "a short course in Christian living"; in fact, the Spanish word Cursillo means "short course." Cursillo migrated to Texas in the 1960s and is now found throughout the world. While begun in the Roman Catholic church and developed in the Episcopal Church, Cursillo crosses denominations, and such retreats--often modified--are becoming increasingly popular in many Protestant churches.. Group members spend a three-day period in retreat and concentrated meditation though informal study of Christianity and find support and encouragement from other Cursillo members who act as sponsors. Cursillo adopts as its theme song the Spanish folk song, "De Colores." Cursillo members are often distinguished by the wearing of some form of a colorful rainbow, often integrated with other Christian symbols such as crosses, doves, etc.
 
 

Dalai lama: The traditional high priest of Tibetan or Mongolian Buddhism known as Lamaism. Although Dalai Lama is a title, it is used when referring to the person.

David, King: Hebrew King annointed King after King Saul. This is the David of the well-known Bible stories labelled "David and Goliath" and "David and Bathsheba." King David is also the father of Solomon and considered by many Christians and Jews to have written several of the Psalms. His life and reign is recorded in the ancient scriptural writing known as the Books of Samuel. His progeny are recorded in the Books of Kings and of Chronicles. Christians believe Jesus Christ comes from the genaeological line of David.

David, Star of: A six-pointed star that serves as a symbol of Judaism. See Magen David.

Day of Atonement: See Yom Kippur. Christians and other religions observe several "days of atonement" during which a believer acts to atone for sins of the past.
See Feast Days.

deacon: Literally, the word deacon means servant, or slave. In more liturgical Christian churches, a deacon is an ordained clergyperson, subordinate to a priest, who assists the higher clerics in administering services of worship and ministry, especially social ministry within the community of a parish or diocese. Less liturgical churches elect deacons from the laity to serve in certain worship activities and administrative duties of the church. Deacons are part of other religious traditions with varying roles.

Dead Sea Scrolls: Ancient documents in the form of scrolls in jars discovered in 1947 in caves above the Dead Sea at Qumran, a village in the Israeli-occupied West Bank. Archaeologists date the scrolls between the 1st cent. B.C.E. and the first half of the 1st cent. C.E. Two copies of the Book of Isaiah, almost 1,000 years older than any Hebrew biblical manuscript previously known, are among the scrolls. A so-called Manual of Discipline for an ascetic community, which is believed to have been a guide for the Essenes, a Jewish sect living in that region between the 2d cent. B.C.E. and 2d cent. C.E. is also among the scrolls. Some scholars suggest a close tie between the Essenes and the early Christians of the New Testament.

Decalogue: See Ten Commandments.

Deuteronomy: Literally, the second giving of the Law.  The fifth book of the Pentateuch (Torah in Hebrew) of the Holy Bible.

deuterocanonical: Roman Catholics distinguish books of the Bible as protocanonical, meaning those which have been accepted from the beginning, and deuterocanonical, meaning those which have come to be accepted later in the life of the church. Many of the books of the so-called Apocrypha are classed as deuterocanonicals by the Roman church.

Dhammapada: A collection of the sayings of Buddha, 423 verses written in Pali, the ancient language of Theravada Buddhism. Translated into English in 1898 by Max Muller, a German scholar at Britain's Oxford University generally acknowledged as the father of the scientific study of comparative religions.

Dharma: A Buddhist term for sublime religious truth or any experience associated with that truth. Hinduism also uses the term to describe individual virtue or the obligations to the divine and to others that are part of that virtue.  Term was co-opted by so-called "Beat" writers of the 20th century who often called themselves, after a title from the writer Jack Kerouac, "The Dharma Bums."

dhikr: A concept of Sufi Islam, the mystical branch of the Muslim faith, that refers to the perpetual remembrance of Allah.

dhyana: The Sanskrit word meaning "meditation," from which is derived the word Zen.

Dianetics: Book published in 1950 by science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard that forms the primary text of the Church of Scientology. See Church of Scientology.

Diaspora: The scattering of a nation's people among several other nations, often after conquest. More specifically this refers to the scattering of the Jews following the destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem both in 597 B.C. and in 70 A.D.

diocese, diocesan: An administrative unit of the Christian church that is under the authority of a bishop and usually defined by geographical boundaries. This term is used by more formal Christian denominations such as the Episcopal Church. Less liturgical and episcopal churches might use a term such as district to refer to a similar administrative unit.

disciple: A follower; a convinced believer to the point of commitment of one's life to the object of worship. Every great religious leader attracted to him- or herself disciples who helped to spread the message of the leader. In Christianity, the word is reserved for followers of Jesus, especially the 12 original followers whom Jesus called to work with him and the one who replaced the betraying disciple.  These 12 are exclusively referred to from among the disciples as the sent ones, or the apostles. Commissioned by Jesus to spread his Word, the original disciples became known as the 12 Apostles..

Divine Liturgy: The Eucharistic rite of Eastern Orthodox Churches.

Diwali:  A Hindu festival of lights, usually held in November (Asvina K15 in the Hindu calendar), that honors Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth.  Homes and temples of Hindus are filled with clay oil lamps called divas that burn for two days.

DOCC (Disciples of Christ in Community): A small-group program largely of the Episcopal Church administered by the University of the South at Sewanee, Tenn. Participants listen to a half-hour presentation then break into small groups where trained facilitators guide the discussion around spiritual topics introduced in the presentation. DOCC offers advanced courses that study the Gospels, Acts, the Life of Jesus, and special topics for young people.

doctrine: A systematized principle or body of principles related to a branch of belief. Any teaching or instruction regarding a particular religious faith. A statement of a widely held policy or belief. In religion, all believers are defined by their adherence to particular doctrines about God, nature, the world and human activity. Ultimately, it is doctrine that separates one faith from another or one branch from another within a particular religion. Compare dogma.

Documentary Hypothesis:A theory of scholars of the Bible that several different writers contributed to the first five books of the Bible (the Torah or the Pentateuch), and that a redactor or editor gathered the documents into their final form. The theory was proposed by 18th century German theology professor Julius Wellhausen, and is sometimes called the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis (K.H. Graf was an Old Testament scholar upon whose research Wellhausen built his theory). Four sources are identified in the documentary hypothesis: The J-source (or Y-source), or Jehovahic source (or Yahwist source); the E-source, or the Elohist source; the P-source, or the Priestly source; and the D-source, or the Deuteronomic redactor source. These are abbreviated by biblical scholars as J,E,P and D or sometimes as Y,E,P and D (The English translation of Jahwist, Wellhausen's German term, is Yahwist). This hypothesis challenges the traditional view that Moses was the author of the first five books of the Bible, a view that continues among many conservative Jews and Christians.

dogma: A principle or doctrine that is authoritatively pronounced by a church or a leader, generally without widespread debate, investigation or discussion. Often dogma is differentiated from doctrine by its being based upon authority without investigative evidence. Compare doctrine. In modern parlance, dogma is frequently seen as a denigrating or pejorative term, though within certain religious traditions it is perceived as authoritative to the faithful.

Dominican: An order of Roman Catholic priests and preachers founded by the Spanish Saint Dominic in the early 13th century. The Dominicans were noted for their opposition to the Albigenses, who were deemed heretics.

Dong Zhi:  The Chinese celebration of the Winter Solstice when places are left at the table for the spirits of ancestors and memories of the dead are recalled.

dualism: Any system of philosophic or religious thought that divides reality along two distinct paths or into two mutually exclusive categories, e.g. mind v. body; mind v. matter; flesh v. spirit; good v. evil; finite v. infinite; sacred v. secular.

Duhserhra/Durga Puja:  A Hindu holiday that celebrates the triumph of good over evil. Hindus observe this celebration usually in the early autumn.

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Easter: The major feast day of the Christian religion marking the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead three days after his crucifixion. Easter is the oldest and most important celebration of the Christian Church. The day is celebrated on the first Sunday after the paschal or full moon, which means its date changes according to the lunar calendar and to ecclesiastical interpretations of that calendar. Eastern Orthodoxy celebrates the holiday one week after most other Christian churches.

Eastern Orthodox: A group of Christian churches with roots in the earliest days of Christianity that do not recognize the authority of the Pope. The churches developed after the so-called Great Schism of 1054 C.E. Included in the Eastern Orthodox churches are the Greek Orthodox and the Russian Orthodox as well as smaller ethnically rooted churches such as the Armenian Orthodox Church. Eastern Orthodox clergy leaders who function much as do archbishops in the Roman Catholic Church are known as Patriarchs or Metropolitans in the Orthodox Church. See Eastern Rite Churches.

Eastern Rite Churches: A group of churches, mostly in ethnic Eastern Europe, that function within the Roman Catholic authority, i.e., they acknowledge papal supremacy, but with considerable autonomy in liturgy and ordination of clergy.

Ecclesiastes: A book of the Hebrew Scriptures that is part of the so-called "Wisdom" literature of the Bible. Some of its phraseology, especially as translated in the King James Version have become part of the Western cultural heritage. The words, for example, " 'Vanity of vanities, all is vanity,' saith the preacher," and the words, "To every thing there is a season," come from the book of Ecclesiastes. Tradition ascribes the wisdom statements to the Jewish King Solomon.

Ecclesiasticus: A book of Hebrew wisdom that contains many proverbs but is preserved in Latin and Greek rather than in Hebrew and thus a part of what many call the Apocrypha or hidden books of the Jewish scriptures. Ecclesiasticus is the Latin name for the book otherwise known as The Wisdom of Jesus Ben Sirach.  One of the most widely quoted phrases from the book of Ecclesiasticus is "Let us now praise famous men."

ecumenism: A modern theological and social term refering to an effort to unite diverse viewpoints into a single Christian vision. The name is taken from the Greek word for "all the inhabited world." The adjectival form, ecumenical, is often linked to a 20th-century religious movement to bring a variety of denominations under a single Christian umbrella such as represented by the World Council of Churches.

Eddy, Mary Baker: The founder and spiritual inspiration of the Church of Christ, Scientist, more popularly known as Christian Science. Born in 1821 in Bow, N.H., Mrs. Eddy became interested in healing and faith, especially after meeting P.P. Quimby, a mental healer, in 1862. She later discarded his methods and began (1866) the Christian Science movement. Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures, the movement's textbook, appeared in 1875. Mrs. Eddy died in 1910. In 1908, she founded The Christian Science Monitor.

Eden: According to the account in the first book of the Hebrew Scriptures (known as Genesis), Eden is the name given to the idyllic garden wherein the first man, Adam, and the first woman, Eve, were placed after being created by the Lord God. Often the term is used as a synonym or symbolic representation of paradise. When Adam and Eve were driven from the garden after sinning against the Lord, Eden also took on the tragic overtones of banishment and lostness for humankind.

EFM (Education for Ministry): A formal program of theological education for lay persons in the Episcopal Church. Though it occurs in parishes, it is administered by the University of the South at Sewanee, Tenn. The entire course, designed as a formal study of Christian documents and doctrine for lay people is usually completed in four years of weekly meetings, although some programs take longer, alter the topics and can be repeated. EFM is designed to equip lay persons for formal leadership in the church.

Eightfold path: In Buddhism, the steps that enable one to overcome craving and attachment. See Four Noble Truths.

elder: A term generally used to describe leaders of a religious denomination. Usually elders are older, experienced and more learned members of a congregation. Several Christian denominations, most notably the Presbyterians and the Congregationalists, give this title to the group of lay people who run the everyday operation of the church and assist the clergy in worship. Prior to the mid-twentieth century, the role of elder in most congregations was exclusively a male role.

Elijah: A Hebrew prophet whose story is told in the books of I and II Kings of the Old Testament or Tanakh. Elijah is perhaps the best known of the ancient Hebrew prophets because of his challenges to the pagan god Baal and for his being taken up to heaven in a chariot of fire. Something of a mentor to the prophet Elisha.

Elisha: A Hebrew prophet who inherited the legacy of the prophet Elijah and asked God for a "double blessing" of Elijah's wisdom and power. Elisha was plowing in a nearby field when Elijah was taken up to meet the Lord in a chariot of fire. The imagery of this important Biblical incident is perhaps best captured in the spiritual, "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot."

Elohim: A Hebrew word used to refer to the Lord God in the scriptures. Scholars distinguish the writings by this usage and refer to one of several authors of the Pentateuch as "The Elohist" because of his characteristic use of this form of address as opposed to the term Jehovah. Sometimes a scholarly shorthand refers to the manuscripts of the Elohist as "E" and those of the Jehovaist as "J". These are part of a complex theory concerning the writing of the ancient texts. In the cultic Christadelphian offshoot of Christianity, the Elohim refer to the host of lesser gods that govern the universe beneath the supreme God.

Epiphany (epiphany): A Greek term meaning "manifestation." In the Christian tradition, it refers to the manifestation of Christ as a human and is celebrated on the sixth of January, which marks the beginning of the season of Epiphany. The holiday is more important in Eastern Orthodoxy, where it marks the Baptism of Jesus as well as the visit of the Magi to the side of the infant Jesus.  The evening prior to the Feast of the Epiphany is known as the "Twelfth Night," marking the twelve days of Christmas that began with the day of Jesus' birth.  Technically, in the Christian church calendar, Epiphany marks the end of the Christmas season.  In a broader sense, an epiphany refers to any sign or manifestation of the divine to humankind.

Episcopal Church: Though without any formal connection, the Episcopal Church is the North American version of the Anglican Church, especially in the United States (though Episcopal dioceses now exist around the world). An outgrowth of the American Revolution, the Episcopal Church retained all features of the Church of England minus any fealty to the King. In almost all features of creed, worship and practice, the Episcopal Church and the Anglican Church are the same. Any church that is governed by a hierarchy of bishops is said to have an episcopal form of church governance.

episcopal, episcopacy: A form of church governance from the top down, with a hierarchical arrangement of clergy beginning with an archbishop, bishops, assisting bishops and parish priests.

Episcopalian: A person who adheres to the creeds and tenets of the Episcopal Church. Editor's Note:  Reporters and editors should note carefully that Episcopalian is a noun and Episcopal is an adjective; thus, it is improper to refer to the church as "the Episcopalian Church" or to refer to one of its members as "an Episcopal."

eschatology: The theological study of last things or end times. The theology of the end of time as we know it, the end of humankind as we know it, or the end of the world as we know it. Often takes the form of cultic doomsday predictions of direness, though Christian eschatology is related to the themes of eternity, paradise, resurrection, and the second coming of Jesus Christ. Several books of scripture, among them the prophecy of Daniel and the New Testament book of Revelation, are categorized as eschatological books. In literature, this form is more familiarly known as apocalypic, although apocalypse almost always refers to some final destructive force interpreted as divine judgment upon humankind.

Essenes: See Dead Sea Scrolls.

Eucharist: The formal Christian sacrament or service of celebrating through remembrance and symbolic recreation the sacrifice of Jesus Christ for the sins of humankind. In less liturgical churches, this is referred to as communion. In Eastern Orthodox churches it is known as The Divine Liturgy. The Eucharist focusses on the communal sharing of believers of bread and wine, symbols not only of The Last Supper, but also of Christ's sacrificial dying for and redeeming humankind from sin.

Evangelical Christianity: A contemporary Christian movement, primarily American and British, emphasizing conservative Biblical scholarship as a credible alternative to Modern or Liberal viewpoints while at the same time eschewing the excesses of Fundamentalism. The label has erroneously been broadened in popular usage to embrace any right-wing religious or political viewpoint. In theology, the word evangel refers to the gospel message of salvation in Jesus Christ; hence, evangelical Christianity emphasizes this doctrine.  In European Christianity, the term is used more technically, and is often estranged from American evangelicalism. See neo-evangelicalism.

Evangelicalism: This often misused and misunderstood term has become the label for any contemporary Protestant Christian who stresses the importance of the Bible and the need for an individual relationship with Jesus Christ.  The "evangel" comes from the Greek word often translated as gospel.  Evangelicalism has always been associated with the active preaching of the gospel in an attempt to urge nonbelievers to convert and grow closer to God in Christ, especially among British preachers of the 19th century.  In the 20th entury, Evangelicalism (or sometimes called neo-evangelicalism) sought to distance itself from the anti-intellectual and narrowness of American Fundamentalism.  More recently, howe